BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
EARLY PSYCHOLOGY
Nineteenth-century scholars and scientists of psychology were among the first to consider the causes of mental illness, to develop an interest in the origins of thoughts and feelings, and to question the relationship between thoughts and behavior. Meanwhile, new movements arose advocating for the rights of those with mental illness. Activists like Dorothea Dix lobbied for the creation of asylums, or mental institutions, to provide care for individuals suffering from mental illness or developmental difficulties. Though psychology was a relatively new field of study, its inquiries into the nature of human thought and behavior held widespread appeal.
Structuralism and Functionalism
In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology labo-ratory, in Germany. He asked individuals to record responses to and observations about specific stimuli, and he used this data to study cognitive structures, or the basic principles of thought. From these early observations, Wundt developed the theory of sTRUC-TURALISM. Structuralists believed that psychologists could study subjective experience by analyzing its component parts, or that all thoughts could be reduced to their most basic elements. For example, according to structuralists, a subject's experience of a meal could be defined in terms of his or her experiences of the tastes, textures, and appearance.
By 1890, the study of psychology had advanced enough to lead to the first textbook, The Principles of Psychology, by William James. Unlike Wundt, James theorized that the mind was an ever-devel-oping flow of ideas and experiences (STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS). Thus, FUNCTIONALISTS are concerned not with determining the cognitive structures that compose thoughts, but with understanding
how the mind as a whole functions and evolves in response to daily life to drive our thoughts and decisions. Despite their differences, structuralism and functionalism are both considered introspective theories, as they concern themselves with the inner workings of the individual mind. While these specific theories serve no therapeutic application today, they represent a significant early step in the field of psychology: contemporary psychologists still employ introspection as an important tool, and new fields (like educational and organizational psychology) have emerged from the tradition of studying the human response to environmental factors.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism arose in opposition to the introspective tendencies of the structuralists and functionalists. John Watson, the rescarcher responsible for popularizing behavioralism, argued that introspection was unreliable and that the science of psychology should only study what can be outwardly observed.
Early behaviorists such as Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner practiced what is today sometimes known as RADICAL BEHAVIORISM because it rejected any inquiry into the thoughts that accompany human behaviors. Though it's considered extreme by today's standards, this early form of behaviorism led to some of psychology's most significant findings, such as those that arose from research into classical and operant conditioning.
Behaviorism remained the primary psychological theory from around 1920 until the 1960s. However, its influence has never completely disappeared. Today, behaviorism continues to influence the work of psychologists, many of whom subscribe to the theories of cognitive behaviorism. COGNITIVE BEHAVIORISM is a field in which practitioners question not only the behaviors themselves but also the thoughts, or cognitions, that underlie and accompany behaviors.
Gestalt Psychology
Like behaviorists, GESTALT PSYCHOLOGISTS rejected structuralist theories, though they did so for a different reason: Gestalt psychologists argued that experiences and perceptions could not be understood by studying their component parts in a vacuum. German psychologist Max Wertheimer, who first introduced Gestalt theory to the world of psychology, posited that thoughts and behavior were system-like, in that the experience of the whole was greater than the combined experiences of the individual parts. In the example of structuralism mentioned earlier, an individual's experience of a meal would be understood by evaluating his or her experiences of its tastes, textures, and appearance; Gestalt psychologists, on the other hand, would argue that the individual's overall perception of the meal is an experience that exists beyond these components.
Psychoanalytic Psychology
The field of PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY was founded by Sigmund Freud and remained the most widely practiced form of psychotherapy throughout the first part of the twentieth century. In his early writing, Freud theorized that awareness is divided into three distinct parts: the conscious, or what the individual thinks about at any given moment; the preconscious, or that which the individual is aware of but not thinking about; and the unconscious, those things of which the individual is not actively aware. Of particular interest to Freud was the unconscious mind. as he believed that the repressed thoughts, feelings, and experiences contained in it could impact, even determine, our daily actions. Further, he argued that our repressed thoughts and feelings were shaped by conflicts, especially those experienced in childhood. (Consequently, parents, particularly mothers, were commonly considered to be to blame for challenges occurring in adulthood.) Thus, to overcome mental illness and psychological distress, Freud argued that one only had to reveal his or her unconscious mind and cope directly with the repressed material therein. To assist his patients in accomplishing this goal, Freud created PSYCHOANALYSIS and the closely related dream analysis, interview techniques that were intended to allow the psychoanalyst to probe the patient's unconscious mind.
While Freud's theories are much less favored today, psychoanalytic psychology remains a relevant part of our popular culture and continues to influence the evolution of modern psychodynamic theory.
Humanistic Psychology
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY is a field that emphasizes the subjective experience and unique potential of each individual. Unlike earlier theories, which posited that thoughts and behaviors were the results of forces outside our control, humanist theory emphasized free will, the ability of each individual to make purposeful decisions about how to think and behave.
Humanistic psychology introduced many concepts that are still important in modern psychological practices. For example, the humanists were the first to introduce the concept of SELF-AC-TUALIZATION, the process of developing oneself (mentally, physically, emotionally, and spiritually) to the fullest potential. hough humanistic psychology has, until recently, taken a largely unscientific approach to the study of human experiences, its modern practitioners employ the same scientific approaches as other practitioners in their work.
Other perspectives
The COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE is concerned primarily with thought, positing that thoughts, rather than external stimuli or biological factors, function as the basis for most behaviors. According to cognitive psychologists, personal interpretations and ingrained thought processes are responsible for determining most of our actions; behavioral change, therefore, must result from a change in thinking.
The sociocultural perspective holds that behavior is the result of social conditioning and expectations. Cultural norms for behavior are especially important in this perspective, as the guidelines that define abnormal behavior vary widely by culture. As a result, practitioners of these theories argue that cultural upbringing must always be taken into account when evaluating an individual's mental well-being.
The EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE suggests that thought and behavior are the result of evolutionary processes over a long period. Because evolution should theoretically lead to behaviors that provide an advantage for the species, behavior is looked at through the lenses of natural selection.
Examples
1. Define Gestalt psychology and its main proponents.
Gestalt psychology posited that human experience was greater than the combination of singular events; that experiences did not exist in a vacuum but were rather explained in a systematic context. Max Wertheimer introduced the theories of Gestalt psychology, which built upon structuralism.
2. Define psychoanalytic psychology and its main proponents.
Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalytic psychology and psychoanalysis. Freud believed that the unconscious mind contained repressed thoughts, feelings, and experiences that determined an individual's behavior, and that these experiences and actions were shaped by conflicts, especially those experienced in childhood.
RESEARCH METHODS
RESEARCH METHODS are scientific means of gathering and processing information. Before conducting any research, a psychologist must consider what form his or her research will take (research design) and how he or she will collect and analyze the results (data collection and analysis).
Research Design
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In psychology, as in all empirical sciences, the scientific method is at the center of all good research. The SCIENTIFIC METHOD is an organized, multistep process that relies upon observable data to produce results.can factors, function as the basis for most behaviors. According to cognitive psychologists, personal interpretations and ingrained thought processes are responsible for determining most of our actions; behavioral change, therefore, must result from a change in thinking.
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The sociocultural perspective holds that behavior is the result of social conditioning and expectations. Cultural norms for behavior are especially important in this perspective, as the guidelines that define abnormal behavior vary widely by culture. As a result, practitioners of these theories argue that cultural upbringing must always be taken into account when evaluating an individual's mental well-being.
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The EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE suggests that thought and behavior are the result of evolutionary processes over a long period Because evolution should theoretically lead to behaviors that provide an advantage for the species, behavior is looked at through the lenses of natural selection.
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Examples
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Define Gestalt psychology and its main proponents.
Gestalt psychology posited that human experience was greater than the combination of singular events; that experiences did not exist in a vacuum but were rather explained in a systematic context. Max Wertheimer introduced the theories of Gestalt psychology, which built upon structuralism. -
Define psychoanalytic psychology and its main proponents.
Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalytic psychology and psychoanalysis. Freud believed that the unconscious mind contained repressed thoughts, feelings, and experiences that determined an individual's behavior, and that these experiences and actions were shaped by conflicts, especially those experienced in childhood.
RESEARCH METHODS
RESEARCH METHODS are scientific means of gathering and processing information. Before conducting any research, a psychologist must consider what form his or her research will take (research design) and how he or she will collect and analyze the results (data collection and analysis).
Research Design
In psychology, as in all empirical sciences, the scientific method is at the center of all good research. The SCIENTIFIC METHOD is an organized, multistep process that relies upon observable data to produce results. In its simplest form, the scientific method is composed of four steps:
Step 1: Observe a phenomenon or group of phenomena.
Step 2: Form a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon.
Step 3: Test the hypothesis and collect data.
Step 4: Analyze data and draw conclusions.
In considering how they will complete the third step, researchers might explore a number of research design options: they may choose to conduct an experiment, an observational study, a correlational study, a survey, or a case study. Each of these research plans has produce valid, reliable results.